Ancient India by Pradeep Verma
Ancient India
India is a country in South Asia whose name comes from the Indus River. The name `Bharata’ is used as a designation for the country in their constitution referencing the ancient mythological emperor, Bharata, whose story is told, in part, in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to the writings known as the Puranas (religious/historical texts written down in the 5th century CE) Bharata conquered the whole sub-continent of India and ruled the land in peace and harmony. The land was, therefore, known as Bharatavarsha (`the sub-continent of Bharata’). Homonid activity in the Indian sub-continent stretches back over 250,000 years and it is, therefore, one of the oldest inhabited regions on the planet.
Archaeological excavations have discovered artifacts used by early humans, including stone tools, which suggest an extremely early date for human habitation and technology in the area. While the civilizations ofMesopotamia and Egypt have long been recognized for their celebrated contributions to civilization, India has often been overlooked, especially in the West, though her history and culture is just as rich.
Map of the Indian subcontinent during the Vedic periods
During the period 2000–500 BCE, in terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from theChalcolithic to the Iron Age.[41] TheVedas, the oldest scriptures ofHinduism,[42] were composed during this period,[43] and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culturein the Punjab region and the upperGangetic Plain.[41] Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent.[44][42] The caste system arose during this period, creating a hierarchy of priests, warriors, free peasants and traders, and lastly the indigenous peoples who were regarded as impure; and small tribal units gradually coalesced into monarchical, state-level polities.[45][46] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[41] In southern India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,[47] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[47]
In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as themahajanapadas.[48][49] The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.[50] Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.[51][52][53] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal,[54] and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom ofMagadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.[55] The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.[56][57] The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as forAshoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhistdhamma.[58][59]
The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and South-East Asia.[60][61] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.[62][55] By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later Indian kingdoms.[63][64] Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather than the management of ritual began to assert itself.[65] The renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculptureand architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.[64] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, andIndian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.[64]
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